Soon after his death the figure of Francis itself, as ‘Other Christ’, became the object of a theological consideration and the movement that emerged from Francis vision of God, expressing itself in a concrete spirituality, thus developed its own philosophical and theological perspective, which went down in history as the Franciscan school. A finer distinction is drawn between the ‘older’, the ‘middle’ and the ‘younger’ Franciscan schools. The so-called ‘older Franciscan school’ is, in turn, divided into schools in Oxford and Paris. The Oxford schools were founded by the non-Franciscan Robert Grosseteste in around the year 1229 and influenced by him not only in their Biblical-Augustinian approach to thinking but in a mathematical and physical orientation as well. His theology, also based on the Middle Eastern-Greek Fathers, focussed on the doctrine of the Trinity and Christology. He interpreted the Incarnation of Christ in view of Creation. He postulated a universal primacy of Christ. His scientific orientation came to characterise the Oxford School of Franciscans. In addition to theology and philosophy, this school also maintained a special interest in the natural sciences and always sought to view faith and rationality in terms of an internal relationship between the two that nonetheless preserved the meaning of each. Robert Grosseteste’s students included Adam Marsh, Thomas of York, Richard Rufus of Cornwall and perhaps the most famous of them all: Roger Bacon. Duns Scotus also emerged from among their ranks. Aside from Roger Bacon, there is another Franciscan who merits calling to mind, a thinker who emerged as a natural scientist from the Oxford School. Bartholomew Anglikus, who also emerged in Paris and Magdeburg, wrote a 19-volume encyclopaedia, well-known at the time, that described the universal knowledge of the day and was translated into most languages of his era. He himself gave impetus to this not only philosophically and theologically, but also scientifically oriented work on grounds that knowledge of all things also contributes to a better knowledge of the Holy Scriptures and, hence, of God Himself. With this attitude, Bartholomew characterised an essential Franciscan approach, promoted in Oxford in particular, that seeks knowledge of God in the two ‘books authored by God’: Holy Scripture and nature.
The Paris schools trace back to Alexander of Hales, with whom the Franciscans received a chair at the University of Paris in 1236/37 when he entered the orders. He was joined there by John of Rupella and Odo Rigaldus. Alexander had direct links to Robert Grosseteste, under whom he had studied, and with whom he engaged in a scientific exchange. Although he did not exhibit much interest in the natural sciences, his theology was nevertheless influenced by his master Robert. Commenting on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, Alexander managed to strike a balance between pure theoretical metaphysics, on the one hand, and a practically oriented theological ‘historia salutis’ on the other. This is how he introduced a methodology into the scientific theological reflection of scholasticism that would play a major role later in the Middle Ages. The important themes of his theological doctrine are the freedom of the Triune God, the fundamental goodness of God and Creation as an absolute gift that stems from the freedom and goodness of God. Like his master, he interpreted the Incarnation not only in view of salvation from sin but saw it first and foremost in view of the completion of the entirety of Creation in the Incarnation of Christ. This laid the groundwork for important themes in the future Paris Franciscan School.
His school produced one of the most renowned Franciscan theologians, Bonaventura of Bagnoregio. It was in him that the ‘older Franciscan School‘ experienced its zenith. For Bonaventura, theology was virtually synonymous with the ‘Holy Doctrine’ as it dealt chiefly with the ‘First Principle’: the One and Triune God. Based entirely on Holy Scripture, to him theology was the perfect science, as it commenced with the ‘First Reality, the Origin of All Things’ and led to the ‘Last Reality’, the aim of all things. Theology conveys knowledge of God in such a way as is possible and necessary for the human being as pilgrim. Theology renders Christ accessible as the centre of all sciences, in whom all things have their focus and in whom all things find their true meaning. Bonaventura developed his theology and spirituality along two major lines: a mystical-ontological approach that focussed on the revelation of the Triune God as the Greatest Good, and a historical-Christological approach that considers the importance of Jesus Christ for Creation, redemption and perfection.
Bonaventura is often regarded as the most typical representative of a Franciscan philosophy, theology and spirituality because, primarily through his Franciscan biographies, he interpreted the founder of the order, and his life itself, in theological terms, in the process elevating Francis to a theological figure that became a model for a spiritual form of life.
The ‘older Franciscan School’ is followed by the ‘middle Franciscan School’, consisting both of Parisians as well as representatives of Oxford, particularly since the names that merit mention alternately appear as teachers in Paris and Oxford. These include Eustachius of Arras, Guibert of Tournai, Walter of Bruges, John Peckham, William de la Mare, Matthew of Aquasparta, Petrus de Falco, Richard of Middleton, Petrus de Trabibus, Peter John Olivi, Nicholas of Ockham and William of Ware, among others. Arnaldus de Villa Nova and the Mallorcan Ramon Llull also belong in this period, even if they are not directly connected to the schools of Paris and Oxford. The ‘younger Franciscan School’ is characterised by the ‘Doctor Subtilis’, Duns Scotus.
Even if Scotus is to be regarded as a subtle thinker, his orientation is not purely theoretical in nature. He taught that true theology must not remain in speculation and must instead lead to that love of God that permits perfection in union with God. Theology must lead knowledge along the right path, so that the will seeks to tread the path of love in freedom. This is what makes theology a practical science, because it seeks to guide the free will to the practice of concrete love. It is in this way that theology, which is practically oriented towards love, reflects the practice of the loving, Triune God who created everything out of free love.
It can perhaps be said that Scotus, in turn, was the founder of a school that would take its place in history under the name of ‘Scotism’. From around the year 1520, the doctrine of Scotus became compulsory teaching material in the theological schools of the order in which subsequent generations of the order in the individual provinces received their training. His contemporaries, albeit not necessarily his followers, include Petrus Auroli and William of Ockham.
The large number of names and the division into three epochs and two important institutions of study suggest that the philosophy and theology of the Franciscans cannot be considered a uniform system of theological theories with a specific doctrine, as is the case, for example, with Thomas Aquinas and his Dominican School. An initial basic statement about the Franciscan School includes a more negative, demarcating paraphrase. This is not an instruction in the sense of an independent or stand-alone doctrinal system that comprises all treatises. Nor is it a school in the sense of a master whose philosophical-theological system is passed on and developed by his students, as in the case of Thomas Aquinas, his Summa and Thomism. We cannot speak of Franciscanism in the same way in which we can speak of Thomism. The Franciscan School is characterised not by its uniformity but rather by its diversity, its variations and the large number of its masters. The Franciscan idea arises precisely from this diversity, which is compiled, and from discussion and controversy as well. The focus of this doctrine is thus upon the fraternity and not upon a single, outstanding master. What is characteristic of the Franciscan tradition is actually the plurality of masters and theories, in the ways in which these interrelate and the tension that exists among them. But they all have a common denominator in that they belong to the brotherhood, and in their connection with the spirituality and figure of Francis, founder of the order. Franciscan thought of whatever colour takes shape in the space of a powerful experience of an ever-evolving fraternity that continually orients itself anew around Francis’ concrete vision of life and his way of living in accordance with the Gospel. The actual protagonist of this doctrine, then, is not so much the individual master but rather the Franciscan brotherhood in the dynamics of constant reorientation around the ideal of the founder and on the foundation of Holy Scripture. This fact of membership in a particular brotherhood and the related confrontation with the underlying ideals, figure and intentions of its founder are the factors that actually define the theses that often develop in ways that point in opposite directions. It is also based on this ideal of the founder that a positive description of Franciscan doctrine is possible. Its originality consists not in the selection of the topics and treatises addressed but rather in the approach and point of departure of these views. Alexander of Hales, for example, described theology as a science that deals with the essence of God revealed in Christ for our salvation. For Bonaventura, theology was discourse about God as the Primum Principium to which all things must be returned for their salvation. For Scotus, God as the only formal object of theology formed the point of departure of his Christocentrism in which humankind and Creation find salvation. The starting point of Franciscan thought is not the ontological question of Being but rather the question of the presence of the origin as an originating, orienting and shaping source of life. The question of God is always directly related to the question of salvation for humankind and the world. There is scarcely any abstract interest in God that would aim at a philosophical and theological interpretation of the Divine titles or of His essence. Such a question is of interest only if it is of vital importance to the salvation of humankind and Creation as such. God is always spoken of as the God of humankind and of His Creation. This is a theocentric vision or, more precisely, a doctrine of the Trinity and its access in Christ. By placing the focus on the theology of the Trinity, the Franciscan authors were also in a position to develop a dynamic image of God that is characterised by His loving self-revelation, and, above all, by His communication in kenosis. In my view, the image of God, and the consistency of its interpretation on behalf of the life of humankind and of all of Creation, also appear to be an outstanding characteristic of a Franciscan tradition. The spiritual influence of the image of God preferred by Francis is evident here as well.
For all the theoretical discussions and for all the subtle escalation of theological theses, Franciscan doctrine ultimately views itself largely as doctrine in the service of practice. The need for purely theoretical knowledge of God is minor. Every theological question links with reflection on the corresponding consequences for the practice of life. Only against this backdrop do philosophy and theology acquire their true meaning. Even for Scotus, who was most likely to find himself engaged in a subtle philosophical-theological discussion, the practice of caritas exceeded theory and must stand in the service of the practice of love. Theorist Roger Bacon also concluded, for example, that theology must lead to good works. Alongside the image of God, then, we find what I consider to be the second characteristic of the Franciscan doctrinal tradition in the systematisation of the treaties within the parameters of an authentic theology of love. Thus, the medieval approach is already eminently practical. The concept of Franciscan doctrine ultimately aims at an ethos that finds its realisation in the concrete way of living.
A third characteristic emerges in view of the applied method with which science is practised here. Starting from a latreutic theology identified as clearly theocentric, the soteriological dimension is taken into consideration with a reference to philosophical anthropology. A preference for emotional and affective intuition is noted here. By the same token, a voluntarist perspective (free will) joins with a mystical orientation (union, vision). In lieu of drawing up theological laws, systems and orderly structures, the emphasis is more upon the art of knowledge in wisdom, the art of feeling and loving, the art of discernment and coalescence. As knowledge is linked so closely with the art and aesthetics of life, the Franciscan tradition is also particularly close to the values of art. All of the arts, music, painting, theatre, sculpture, all possibilities of art are enlisted to proclaim and convey wisdom. Whereas Thomistic reflection stems more from the ratio in the effort to find a way to love, the Franciscan perspective comes more from a position of love to gain insight into wisdom. Certainly a characteristic of the Franciscans can be found in their own doctrinal approach. Of course, they also engaged in metaphysics. They asked the question of Being, the Highest Being, and in this they also attained a theo-ontology, or an ontological-theological consideration of humankind. But their speciality, as it were, was the salvific-historical approach. The focus of interest is placed less on the question of Being and more on a pinpointing of the Divine act of salvation in the history of the universe and of humanity. Here again, they are entirely faithful to the spirituality of Francis, the entirety of whose world-view is influenced by God’s action in salvific history.
This orientation of the Franciscan tradition also characterises the relationship between philosophy and theology in Franciscan thought. To simply describe philosophy as the handmaiden of theology, a stance often critically ascribed to a more ecclesiastical tradition, would be to ignore Franciscans’ relationship to philosophy as it relates to theology. For the Franciscans, the sole aim of all questioning, investigation and academic reflection is the wisdom of God as revealed in Christ. Both philosophy and theology are oriented in partnership around this aim. Philosophy exhausts all of the capabilities of the human ratio in the effort to come closer to this objective. Theology does not replace philosophy where the latter may bump up against its limits; instead, it introduces the results of philosophical exploration into reflection about Divine revelation in order to gain the enlightenment and guidance of the wisdom of God Himself. In the Franciscan tradition, then, philosophy is not simply considered the handmaiden of superior theology; rather, philosophy is the enlightened sister of the more contemplative and meditative theology. Allied with both are the senses that are oriented towards the wisdom of God, and the intuition specific to the heart. Enlightened philosophy, contemplative theology, the purified senses and loving intuition are the tools with which to approach the mystery of God and humankind.
Alongside Holy Scripture and the Church Fathers, the sources of Franciscan theology can be found particularly in Augustine. The influence of Augustine was so strong that one can certainly speak of Augustinian-Franciscan theology. The structure of their treatises can certainly be characterised as classical-traditional and is based on the style of the sums. A separate treatise on anthropology cannot be found. The anthropological question is fully integrated into the question of God and into the treatises conventionally addressed at the time. As the relevant bibliographies on the Franciscan tradition make clear, the topic of Franciscan philosophy and theology as such has been thoroughly worked through and examined, even if a large number of unpublished works still exists – by Peter John Olivi, for example.
© 2020, JBF, MZF
Franciscan Note 